Pompeii's Victims Were Not Who We Thought: What Ancient DNA From the Plaster Casts Reveals

Hero image: AI generated illustration of an adult man carrying a child down the garden stairs of a terraced Pompeian house as the eruption column rises over Vesuvius. The man's dark complexion follows the genetic prediction for individual 52 of Pilli and colleagues, whose ancestry points to the Levant or Egypt. It is not a reconstruction of the House of the Golden Bracelet and is not a portrait of any real person.

In 1863, excavators at Pompeii kept running into hollows in the hardened ash. The director of the excavations, Giuseppe Fiorelli, had liquid plaster poured into one, waited for it to set, and cleared the ash away. What came out was a human being, lying as he had died, with the folds of his clothes and the shape of his face preserved in white.

More than a thousand victims have been found in the city since then, and 104 of them have been cast with Fiorelli's method. They are the most famous human remains of the ancient world, and they have always come with stories. A mother shields her child. Two sisters, or a mother and her daughter, die in each other's arms. A family flees down a staircase towards the sea. A faithful custodian stays at his post until the end.

Those stories were built from posture, position and jewellery, and from the expectations of the archaeologists and restorers who made and displayed the casts. In November 2024, a team from the University of Florence, Harvard Medical School and the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, led by Elena Pilli, Stefania Vai, David Caramelli, David Reich and Alissa Mittnik, published the first genomes ever recovered from inside the casts. The DNA contradicts nearly every story it was able to test.

The casts were never photographs

A cast is not a body. When the soft tissue decayed, it left a void in the ash, and the plaster that filled the void took the shape of the person, their clothes and whatever lay around them. The bones stayed inside, mixed with plaster. What we see is the surface of that plaster, as it was poured, cleaned, mended and sometimes reshaped over a century and a half.

In 2015, 86 casts were restored, and 26 of them were examined with X-rays and CT scans. Not one contained a complete skeleton. Bones had often been removed before the plaster was poured, metal rods had been inserted to hold the figures together, and restorers had filled and remodelled damaged areas, with styles that changed with the decade in which each cast was made. One cast long described as a pregnant woman turned out to owe its rounded belly to a bundle of clothing.

This matters for everything that follows. When a cast seems to show a woman, the woman may be partly the work of a restorer. When two casts seem to embrace, their position may have been adjusted. The authors of the 2024 study say it plainly: the use of the casts for storytelling may have led to changes in their poses and in how they were arranged next to each other.

What the DNA could read

During the restoration, the team took fragments of bone mixed with plaster from 14 casts. Heat, water, centuries of exposure and the casting process itself are all hostile to DNA, and most samples failed. Seven passed screening and were enriched for about 1.2 million positions across the genome. Five gave enough data for analysis, between 53,739 and 364,533 of those positions, at very low coverage, never more than 0.44 times. Two more gave only a mitochondrial genome.

Every individual whose sex could be read from the DNA was male. None of the five with genome-wide data was related to any other up to the third degree, that is, no parents and children, no siblings, no grandparents, no uncles, aunts or first cousins.

The House of the Golden Bracelet: a family that was not one

The House of the Golden Bracelet stands in Regio VI, Insula 17, on the western edge of the city. It was one of the richest houses in Pompeii, built on three levels against the city walls, with painted rooms and terraces looking out over the plain towards the sea.

In 1974, excavators found four victims there. Three lay at the foot of the staircase that led down to the garden and the way to the shore: two adults, casts 50 and 52, and a small child, cast 51, who seemed to rest on the hip of cast 52. That adult wore a heavy gold armband in the form of a two-headed serpent, the find that gave the house its name. With the bracelet and the child, the identification seemed obvious: a mother. The other adult became the father. A few metres away lay a second child of about four, cast 53, described as a boy because of a bulge in the plaster at the groin and imagined as separated from his family during the flight. The accepted story was that the family had sheltered in the stairwell and died when it collapsed as they tried to reach the harbour.

X-rays had already shown that the skeletons inside could not be sexed with any confidence. The DNA could. All four were male. The adult with the bracelet, the mother of the story, was a man. And the family falls apart. The three with genome-wide data, the supposed mother and the two children, are not related to one another up to the third degree. For the fourth, cast 50, only the mitochondrial genome could be read: he shares no maternal line with the others, although a relationship through his father cannot be excluded.

Their ancestries are different too. The man with the bracelet, cast 52, carries no ancestry from the Neolithic farmers of Anatolia, unlike the two children. He is modelled as 57.7% Levantine and 42.3% Iranian Neolithic farmer ancestry, the profile of the Iron Age and Roman Levant, and the closest of the more recent sources tested were Egyptians of the Hellenistic period, although no simple model fits him perfectly. From the few pigmentation markers that could be read, he most probably had dark skin and black hair. The two children most probably had brown eyes.

So who were they? The DNA does not say. A Roman household was not a nuclear family. It included enslaved men and women, freed slaves, foster children, clients and lodgers, and in a disaster it could include neighbours or passers-by who ran in from the street. An adult holding a child who is not his own is one of the most ordinary things that happens in a catastrophe. The genetic result does not make the scene less human. It removes a label that was written on it in the twentieth century.

The House of the Cryptoporticus: an embrace

The House of the Cryptoporticus, in Regio I, Insula 6, takes its name from a vaulted underground passage that runs along three sides of its garden, and one of its rooms is painted with scenes from the Iliad. In 1914, nine people were found in the garden in front of it. Only four could be cast. Two of them, casts 21 and 22, lay so close together that they were read as an embrace, and over the following century they became two sisters, or a mother and her daughter, or a pair of lovers.

The scans gave cast 21 an age of 14 to 19 years and cast 22 the age of a young adult, with a rather slender skull. The nuclear genome could be read only for cast 22, and he was male. That alone rules out the sisters and the mother and daughter. The mitochondrial genome of cast 21 could be read as well: it belongs to haplogroup R and not to the lineage of cast 22, N1b1a1, so the two did not share a mother.

Cast 22 descends largely from Anatolia: a single source from western or central Turkey of the period fits his genome, and his maternal lineage, N1b1a1, points to the Near East or North Africa. The genetic data rule out two of the three stories told about this pair. They cannot rule out the third, and they were never designed to. Whether the two were father and son, master and servant, friends, lovers, or strangers who ended up side by side in the same garden is not written in their genomes.

The Villa of the Mysteries: the custodian

The Villa of the Mysteries lies outside the walls, northwest of the town, near the ancient shore. It is famous for its frescoes of a Dionysiac ritual, but it was also a working farm with its own wine press. Its victims died in two phases. Two adults, described as women, and a child were caught in the first fall of pumice on an upper floor. Six other people were found in the ash layers above, which means they had survived the first hours of the eruption.

One of them, cast 25, lay alone in a room on top of a layer of ash. He wore an iron ring set with a carved carnelian showing a female figure on the little finger of his left hand, and had five bronze coins and a whip. He was about 1.85 metres tall and thin. His clothes and ornaments suggested a man of low status, and he was described as the custodian of the villa who had stayed at his post.

He is the one individual whose traditional reading the DNA does not contradict. He was male, and he is the only one of the five with ancestry from the Bronze Age steppe: 65.3% Levantine Neolithic and 34.7% steppe in the distal model, which suggests a mixed background with a European component the others lack. The strontium in his tooth enamel, 0.70847, is a little higher than the two values measured so far at Pompeii itself but within the range of the southern Campanian plain, and the oxygen isotopes fit the coast of central Italy. He may well have grown up in the area. The authors are careful to add that similar values occur elsewhere in the Mediterranean, so a childhood abroad cannot be excluded.

A city of recent immigrants

Beyond the individual stories, the five genomes tell one story together. On a principal component analysis they sit away from modern Italians, from the Iron Age populations of Italy and from the Etruscans of the same period, and close to eastern Mediterranean and Levantine populations. Their Y chromosome lineages, J2a, J2b, E1b and T1a, all first emerged in western Asia. In the authors' words, all Pompeians with genome-wide data derive their ancestry largely from recent immigrants from the eastern Mediterranean, exactly the pattern found in Rome itself in 2019 by Margaret Antonio and colleagues.

The one genome deep enough to look for long stretches of identical DNA, cast 52, carries a single short run of 4.71 centimorgans, which is what you expect in a large and mixed population and not in a small community whose members marry relatives. Pompeii was a river port on the Bay of Naples, across the water from Puteoli, one of the main harbours for ships from Alexandria and the eastern Mediterranean, and ancient authors described the town as a mix of local and immigrant groups. How each person or their parents arrived, as merchants, sailors, enslaved people, freedmen or the children of any of these, the genomes cannot tell.

The first Pompeian genome: the House of the Craftsman

The cast genomes were not the first from Pompeii. In 2022, Gabriele Scorrano, Serena Viva and colleagues published the skeletons of two people found together in room 9 of the Casa del Fabbro, the House of the Craftsman, in Regio I, Insula 10. One was a man of 35 to 40, about 1.64 metres tall. The other was a woman over 50, about 1.53 metres tall. Only the man yielded a usable genome, from the dense petrous bone of the skull, at a low average depth of about 0.4 times.

On the principal component analysis he clustered with the Imperial Roman individuals from Italy, close to modern Greeks, Maltese, Cypriots and Turks, and his strongest affinity in formal tests was with the Neolithic farmers of Anatolia. His uniparental lineages, however, have a Sardinian accent. His mitochondrial lineage, HV0a, is common in Sardinia, and his Y chromosome belongs to a rare deep branch of haplogroup A, A1b1b2b defined by the mutation M13, which the authors note is found today only among Sardinians. When Pilli and colleagues reanalysed him alongside the casts, every working model needed 73 to 84% from a Lebanese source, plus a European one.

His skeleton also showed a large destructive lesion on the front of the fourth lumbar vertebra, the classic sign of spinal tuberculosis. In the sequencing data, 14,096 reads were assigned to the genus Mycobacterium, of which 403 could be assigned specifically to the tuberculosis complex. The authors write that this was too little to authenticate. The diagnosis rests mainly on the bone, and the DNA offers possible support, not a confirmation.

Our Global25 analysis

Global25 coordinates are available to us for three Pompeians: the man from the House of the Craftsman (f1R), the boy found apart in the House of the Golden Bracelet (cast 53, I3691) and the young man of the embrace (cast 22, I3690). The man with the bracelet, the child he carried and the custodian of the Villa of the Mysteries are not in the coordinate set used here, and for them everything above comes from the published study. Cast 22 is covered at only 93,727 positions, so his coordinates are the noisiest of the three.

We compared them with the Imperial Roman individuals of Antonio and colleagues, with an average for Imperial Rome, with Iron Age Lebanon and the southern Levant, and with modern populations of Italy, the Balkans, Iberia and the Caucasus. The main model has two sources: Iron Age Lebanon for the eastern pole and modern Tuscany for the Italian pole.

1. First, does the test work?

Before reporting any percentage we checked what the model returns when the answer is known. We mixed a different Levantine population, the southern Levant average, into five host populations, from Lazio, Sardinia, Andalusia, Castile and Albania, in known proportions, and ran the mixtures through the same two-source model. Because the test mixtures use a different Levantine population from the model's own pole, this is a harder test than simply reading back the same ingredients.

From 40% upward, the average estimate lands within about four points of the truth, although a single host can be off by ten to fifteen points. Below about 25% the estimator is unreliable, and that is our honest detection floor. One host scores above zero with nothing added: modern Lazio, at 14.7%. This is not an artefact of the method, since Albanians, Bulgarians, Andalusians and Sardinians all score zero. Central Italians today carry a modest share of eastern Mediterranean ancestry, and that turns out to matter for the cross-check below. All three Pompeians sit far above the floor.

2. Closer to the Romans of the Empire than to modern Italians

All three Pompeians are closest to the people of Imperial Rome and to the Levant. Their nearest references are the Imperial Roman average, at 0.040, 0.044 and 0.059, an Imperial individual from the Casal Bertone necropolis, a Levant-shifted Roman from Antonio and colleagues, and Iron Age Lebanon. Modern Italians of Lazio sit at 0.071 to 0.081, Tuscans at 0.084 to 0.093, and Sardinians, the most distant of all, at 0.123 to 0.148. This matches the published principal component analysis: the Pompeians do not look like the Italians of today.

Cast 22 is consistently a little farther from everything. Two reasons are likely, and they are not exclusive: his low coverage adds noise, which inflates every distance, and his best published source, Roman Anatolia, is not in our panel.

3. Three Pompeians, three different profiles

The three are not interchangeable. The man from the House of the Craftsman and the boy of the Golden Bracelet are 0.039 apart, the man and cast 22 are 0.067 apart, and the boy and cast 22 are 0.059 apart. Between the nine Imperial individuals from Rome in our panel, distances run from 0.032 to 0.103, with a median of 0.062. By comparison, the population averages of modern Lazio and Tuscany are only 0.020 apart. Single genomes are always noisier than averages, so these numbers should not be pushed far, but the picture agrees with the published analysis: the people of Pompeii were as mixed as the people of Rome.

4. More eastern than the average Roman

On this axis the three Pompeians score 67.1, 69.7 and 69.8%. Imperial Rome as a whole scores 50.8%, and its individuals spread from 26.5% to 100%, from people who look like Iron Age Italians to people who look like recent arrivals from the Levant. The Pompeians sit in the upper half of that range, consistently: not with the European-shifted Romans, and not at the far Levantine end either. Three people are not a population, and a port town may well have drawn more immigrants than the average, but the direction is clear.

5. Cross-check against the published qpAdm

Our figures run a few points below the published ones, and the reason is the one Figure 1 already exposed. Modern Tuscany is not a clean Italian pole: it carries some eastern Mediterranean ancestry of its own, and as a source it absorbs part of the Levantine signal. When the Italian pole is replaced by Sardinians, who score zero on this axis, the shares rise to 80.8% for the man of the Craftsman's house and 78.8% for the boy, inside or near the published ranges. The published Iron Age Italian source is not in our coordinate set. We therefore use the qpAdm figures as the headline and our numbers as directional support.

For cast 22, the model fits worst, and adding a West Asian pole from the Caucasus does not help (fit 0.0489 instead of 0.0490). That is what we would expect if his true source was Roman Anatolia, as the published analysis found, since Anatolia is not represented in our panel.

6. What Global25 cannot tell you

Global25 can say nothing about sex or kinship. Those results come from reads on the X and Y chromosomes and from comparing genomes position by position, and every statement about mothers, sisters and families in this article comes from the published study, not from our coordinates.

It also cannot separate sources that are too close. If both Levantine populations are put into the model at once, Iron Age Lebanon and the southern Levant average, only 0.027 apart, the condition number jumps from 3.5 to 20.3 and the split between them becomes noise: 3 and 60% for the man of the Craftsman's house, 15 and 51% for the boy. Their sum, 62 to 66%, is stable. Only the sum means anything.

And the exact number depends on the Italian or European pole, as Table 3 shows. The ranking of the three Pompeians against Rome is stable under every choice. The decimal places are not.

The stories and what the DNA says

From Fiorelli to the genome

What remains

None of this makes the casts less moving. A man died at the foot of a staircase with a small child against him. Two young people died side by side in a garden. A tall man in plain clothes, with five bronze coins and a whip, died alone in a room of a villa after surviving the first hours of the eruption. These things happened.

What the DNA has taken away are the words we wrote on them: mother, sisters, family. What it gives back is more honest and, in its way, more interesting: people of many origins, in a port town of the Roman Empire, many of them the children or grandchildren of people who had crossed the Mediterranean, whose relationships to one another we simply do not know. The authors of the study end with a warning against replacing old narratives with new ones that might misrepresent these people just as badly. It is good advice for anyone who looks at the casts.

Methods note

All coordinates are Global25 scaled coordinates by Davidski. The three Pompeian individuals are f1R from Scorrano and colleagues (2022) and I3691 and I3690 from Pilli and colleagues (2024). The Imperial Roman individuals are from Rome and its Casal Bertone necropolis, and the Imperial Rome average is the one used in our earlier articles. All sources come from the same scaled set, and the Imperial Rome average sits 0.040 to 0.059 from the Pompeians, within the spread of distances among the Roman individuals themselves, consistent with a single scale. The main model has two sources, Iron Age Lebanon (Lebanon_IA3.SG) and modern Tuscany, separated by 0.113, with a condition number of 3.5. NNLS fits use a sum to one constraint applied as a weighted extra equation, weight 1000, followed by normalisation. The spike-in validation mixed the southern Levant average into five hosts (Lazio, Sardinia, Andalusia, Castile and Albania) at 0, 10, 20, 40, 60 and 80%. The collinearity test added the southern Levant average as a third source (condition number 20.3), and the West Asian test added modern Armenians (condition number 7.1). Sex, kinship, haplogroups, isotopes, pigmentation predictions and qpAdm proportions are taken from the cited studies and are not recomputed here.

Global25 coordinates used in this article

The three Pompeian genomes, the Imperial Roman individuals and average, and the reference populations used in our models. They can be pasted directly into the Vahaduo tool.

Italy_Pompeii_Roman:f1R.SG,0.095611,0.143190,-0.032809,-0.070737,0.000308,-0.020359,-0.001175,0.000692,0.003272,0.020046,0.017051,0.000749,-0.003122,0.004404,0.008007,-0.013524,-0.005867,0.001394,-0.004399,-0.010505,-0.006613,-0.001113,-0.000370,-0.007953,0.007065
Italy_Pompeii_Roman:I3691,0.091058,0.142174,-0.035072,-0.065569,0.006770,-0.034861,0.000000,-0.005077,0.014317,0.022962,0.005684,0.008393,0.009217,0.000826,-0.003800,-0.008618,-0.002738,0.000127,0.015964,-0.004127,-0.000374,-0.006554,-0.004560,-0.009640,0.007903
Italy_Pompeii_Roman:I3690,0.104717,0.143190,-0.025267,-0.069122,0.000000,-0.040160,0.006815,-0.007154,0.012680,-0.007654,-0.000487,-0.012889,0.016799,-0.014175,-0.004207,0.000133,0.000782,0.005448,0.003142,0.004252,0.004742,-0.010263,0.006286,0.019159,0.002634
Italy_Imperial:R113.SG,0.121791,0.158423,-0.008297,-0.042636,0.016003,-0.014223,-0.006345,-0.006231,0.014317,0.031162,0.002598,0.005545,-0.008176,-0.004679,-0.002579,-0.014320,-0.015516,-0.002280,0.004525,-0.019634,0.004742,-0.003586,0.001602,-0.005061,-0.002874
Italy_Imperial:R131.SG,0.111547,0.150298,-0.001886,-0.049096,0.009540,-0.003904,-0.007990,-0.006923,0.006136,0.015308,0.002273,0.004196,0.001487,-0.006744,-0.004750,0.001989,0.010170,0.007855,0.000251,-0.011881,0.002995,0.004822,-0.006286,0.000843,0.001557
Italy_Imperial:R47.SG,0.104717,0.148267,-0.008674,-0.042959,0.010771,-0.016176,-0.001410,-0.005307,0.004500,0.020410,0.003248,0.004796,-0.005946,-0.011285,-0.004750,-0.000265,0.008084,0.002534,-0.003771,0.004502,-0.007237,-0.000495,0.000739,-0.005663,-0.001078
Italy_Imperial_oLevant:R70.SG,0.094473,0.155376,-0.042238,-0.083334,-0.008925,-0.024821,-0.005170,-0.005769,0.008795,0.007472,0.005684,-0.007493,0.007582,-0.005367,-0.007193,0.000796,0.005737,-0.000507,0.000126,0.002751,-0.008485,0.006430,-0.000986,-0.006868,0.002036
Italy_Imperial_oLevant:R1547.SG,0.081953,0.151314,-0.056568,-0.088502,-0.016618,-0.032630,-0.008695,-0.006692,0.013908,0.015855,-0.001299,-0.000450,0.010258,0.000000,-0.002850,-0.003580,0.003781,0.006714,-0.004274,0.000000,0.001872,0.006801,-0.003451,-0.004579,-0.008861
Italy_Imperial_oLevant:R1550.SG,0.079676,0.140143,-0.048649,-0.074936,-0.012002,-0.025379,-0.008930,-0.004154,0.014930,0.003827,0.001624,0.000599,0.007284,-0.008533,0.000679,0.015911,0.018645,0.000760,-0.008422,0.003502,-0.000374,0.005317,0.005300,-0.001446,0.002155
Italy_CasalBertone_RomanImperial:F4_I.SG,0.094473,0.148267,-0.019233,-0.056202,0.010463,-0.013666,-0.003760,-0.001615,-0.003886,0.022597,0.018188,0.002698,-0.002527,-0.009083,-0.008415,0.010607,0.018384,0.001900,0.001885,0.000125,-0.000374,0.007172,-0.003204,-0.004820,-0.004071
Italy_CasalBertone_RomanImperial:T46.SG,0.089920,0.144205,-0.030924,-0.063954,0.000308,-0.016176,-0.001880,-0.003692,-0.001432,0.012939,-0.000162,0.009142,0.001933,0.003028,-0.007736,0.007425,0.001304,0.000000,0.006411,-0.002626,0.001996,-0.002968,0.006902,0.009278,0.009101
Italy_CasalBertone_RomanImperial:T21.SG,0.091058,0.129988,-0.051666,-0.063308,-0.021235,-0.011156,0.008225,-0.003923,-0.016362,-0.006014,-0.006496,0.007643,0.005054,-0.001239,0.010586,0.018828,0.006650,-0.006841,-0.000251,-0.010255,0.001248,0.004575,-0.013188,0.006266,0.002994
Sardinian,0.121687,0.167285,0.02849,-0.050652,0.060151,-0.022134,-0.003952,0.002496,0.041574,0.077351,-0.000059,0.016649,-0.028664,-0.012974,-0.013572,-0.003001,0.011403,-0.001347,0.00168,-0.012995,-0.002121,-0.001102,-0.010084,-0.021383,0.000337
Italian_Lazio,0.11314,0.152736,0.006788,-0.034303,0.021173,-0.010933,0.003243,-0.000277,0.006422,0.024237,0.00052,0.002548,-0.009574,-0.00523,-0.006732,0.002943,0.001043,0.000456,0.00269,-0.004227,-0.001922,0.004229,0.000567,0.000723,-0.000575
Italian_Tuscany,0.11881,0.147784,0.013882,-0.021011,0.025294,-0.008938,-0.001063,-0.001626,0.005649,0.023239,-0.000309,0.006066,-0.011475,-0.003703,-0.002243,-0.000814,0.002154,0.00029,0.003334,-0.003829,-0.001967,0.001407,-0.000734,0.003196,-0.001226
Levant_South,0.085367,0.148674,-0.057398,-0.092508,-0.009602,-0.035029,-0.002209,-0.008169,0.016321,0.008237,0.009159,-0.009921,0.020485,0.011863,-0.005537,0.002121,-0.011239,0.001014,0.002112,-0.003652,-0.000524,0.003116,0.000567,-0.00294,0.004646
Lebanon_IA3.SG,0.0879281,0.15106,-0.0490729,-0.0918128,-0.0102324,-0.0320375,-0.0045531,-0.009288,0.0108651,0.0133488,0.0070232,-0.0040839,0.0111311,0.0019781,-0.0098059,0.0023701,0.0016461,-0.0003326,0.0031268,0.0003438,0.0026984,0.0054406,-0.0038975,-0.0026359,-0.0047451
Source_Italy_Imperial,0.108815,0.149950,-0.023263,-0.056876,0.003974,-0.020566,-0.000692,-0.005690,-0.003150,0.021014,0.003633,0.002544,-0.005649,-0.000613,-0.010633,-0.002227,0.004951,0.000981,0.002507,-0.004917,-0.002763,0.002971,-0.001651,0.000685,0.000339
Source_WestAsian_Armenian_n19,0.104583,0.137746,-0.054989,-0.060475,-0.029358,-0.015262,0.003533,-0.007079,-0.030132,-0.003317,0.002838,0.000725,-0.003098,0.003112,-0.004878,-0.002903,-0.000969,0.000739,0.001581,-0.001969,0.001386,0.002432,-0.003391,-0.001484,-0.000047
Source_Albanian,0.122240,0.143591,0.017566,-0.015768,0.026394,-0.007339,0.002499,0.001469,0.001507,0.017312,-0.000863,0.003573,-0.006240,0.006284,-0.019308,-0.002097,0.011999,0.000537,0.007400,-0.006184,-0.008088,0.001409,0.002835,0.003358,-0.003032
Source_Balkan_Bulgarian,0.124750,0.134862,0.025644,0.005362,0.024620,-0.000837,0.005499,0.003046,-0.000286,0.006998,-0.003345,0.000899,0.002111,0.008643,-0.014305,-0.002228,0.007093,0.002002,0.003142,-0.003702,-0.004617,-0.000544,0.002810,-0.002482,-0.001078
Source_Spanish_Andalucia,0.108132,0.146076,0.035707,-0.003434,0.045256,-0.005857,-0.001930,0.002660,0.024715,0.031162,-0.002154,0.007272,-0.013207,-0.011408,0.010243,-0.002498,-0.006176,-0.001100,-0.004261,-0.002133,0.002929,-0.001302,-0.001972,-0.005334,0.001885
Spanish_Castilla_Y_Leon,0.107753,0.143867,0.040477,-0.002153,0.043803,0.001859,-0.001723,0.004615,0.028429,0.029218,-0.002328,0.007843,-0.012091,-0.012019,0.012260,-0.006541,-0.006780,-0.001731,-0.004525,-0.002293,0.000291,-0.000907,0.001315,-0.002571,-0.002754

References

1. Ancient DNA Pilli E, Vai S, Moses VC, Morelli S, Lari M, Modi A, Diroma MA, Amoretti V, Zuchtriegel G, Osanna M, Kennett DJ, George RJ, Krigbaum J, Rohland N, Mallick S, Caramelli D, Reich D, Mittnik A (2024). Ancient DNA challenges prevailing interpretations of the Pompeii plaster casts. Current Biology 34(22): 5307 to 5318. doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2024.10.007
2. Open access Pilli E et al. (2024). Author manuscript of the same study, with tables of haplogroups, coverage and kinship. pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11627482
3. Ancient DNA Scorrano G, Viva S, Pinotti T, Fabbri PF, Rickards O, Macciardi F (2022). Bioarchaeological and palaeogenomic portrait of two Pompeians that died during the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD. Scientific Reports 12: 6468. doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-10899-1
4. Ancient DNA Antonio ML, Gao Z, Moots HM, Lucci M, Candilio F, Sawyer S, et al. (2019). Ancient Rome: A genetic crossroads of Europe and the Mediterranean. Science 366(6466): 708 to 714. doi.org/10.1126/science.aay6826
5. Bioarchaeology Lazer E, Welch K, Vu D, Vu M, Middleton A, Canigliula R, Luyck S, Babino G, Osanna M (2021). Inside the casts of the Pompeian victims: results from the first season of the Pompeii Cast Project in 2015. Papers of the British School at Rome 89: 101 to 136. doi.org/10.1017/S0068246220000264
6. Ancient DNA Posth C, Zaro V, Spyrou MA, Vai S, Gnecchi-Ruscone GA, Modi A, et al. (2021). The origin and legacy of the Etruscans through a 2000-year archeogenomic time transect. Science Advances 7(39): eabi7673. doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abi7673
7. Isotopes Killgrove K, Montgomery J (2016). All roads lead to Rome: exploring human migration to the Eternal City through biochemistry of skeletons from two Imperial-era cemeteries (1st to 3rd c AD). PLoS ONE 11(2): e0147585. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0147585
8. Ancient DNA Marcus JH, Posth C, Ringbauer H, Lai L, Skeates R, Sidore C, et al. (2020). Genetic history from the Middle Neolithic to present on the Mediterranean island of Sardinia. Nature Communications 11: 939. doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-14523-6
9. Press University of Florence (2024). Pompeii: DNA rewrites the history of victims of the eruption. unifi.it
10. Data Global25 PCA coordinates by Davidski.