Ancient DNA | Chile and the Southern Cone | Mapuche origins

Who were the first Mapuche ancestors?

The largest Indigenous people of Chile have no written history before the Spanish conquest. Their genomes go much further back. Ancient DNA places their ancestors in central Chile at least 5,000 years ago, living largely apart from the Andes until the last millennium. We tested 156 ancient genomes from across the Southern Cone and the Andes in Global25 to see how much of that story a public dataset can recover.

5,000+ yearssince direct Mapuche ancestors were living in central Chile and Chiloe, according to the team behind the 2023 Current Biology study
700 BPage of the Conchali genomes from the Santiago basin, the closest ancient match to every Mapuche group tested
16 to 23%Andean share in our Global25 model, against 50 to 58% in Quechua and Aymara, and near the detection floor

Hero image: AI generated illustration of a late pre-Hispanic Mapuche family by a lake in the Araucania, below the Villarrica volcano, with a thatched ruka, a vertical loom, small fields of potato, maize and quinoa, and two chilihueque, the domestic camelids the Mapuche raised before sheep arrived with the Spanish. The ruka is smaller and rounder than real ones, which were long oval houses, and clothing and pottery are approximations. It is not a reconstruction of a documented scene and does not portray any real person.

In the 2017 census, about 1.7 million people in Chile identified as Mapuche, roughly one in ten of the population. They are the people who kept their independence south of the Biobio River from the late 16th century until the 1880s, and whose language, Mapudungun, is still spoken from the Pacific coast to Argentine Patagonia. Yet the question of where they come from has long been answered with guesses: an offshoot of the Andean civilisations, a late arrival from the east, a mixture of everyone who passed through.

Ancient DNA has started to replace the guesses. The answer it gives is simpler and older than most of them. The ancestors of the Mapuche were already in central Chile thousands of years before the Inca, and they stayed.

The oldest genomes from Chile

People reached southern Chile very early. At Monte Verde, near Puerto Montt, archaeologists found a camp dated to about 14,500 years ago, one of the oldest accepted sites in the Americas. No human remains have been recovered there, so it tells us nothing about the genome of its inhabitants.

The oldest genome from Chile comes from Los Rieles, a coastal site near Los Vilos, about 230 km north of Santiago. In 2018, Cosimo Posth, Nathan Nakatsuka and colleagues published two individuals from the site in Cell. The first, dated to about 10,900 years ago, belongs to an early lineage that shares extra alleles with Anzick-1, the Clovis-era child from Montana. The second lived about 5,100 years ago, nearly six millennia later.

The 10,900 year old individual shows only slight excess affinity to later Southern Cone people. That fits the main conclusion of the study: across South America, the earliest lineages were largely replaced by at least 9,000 years ago, and the populations that followed show long continuity in several regions. In the Pampas, hunter-gatherers from Arroyo Seco 2 and Laguna Chica, up to 8,600 years old, already show the strongest allele sharing with some present-day Indigenous peoples of the Southern Cone.

Roots in central Chile, deeper than any written recordKey dates from ancient genomes and archaeology, in years before present (BP)about 14,500 BPMonte Verde, near Puerto MonttPeople already live in southern Chile. No genome has been recovered.10,900 BPLos Rieles, Los Vilos coastOldest genome from Chile. An early lineage linked to the Clovis-era Anzick child, withonly slight affinity to later Southern Cone people.by 9,000 BPAcross South AmericaA population turnover largely replaces the earliest lineages. Long continuity follows inseveral regions.from 8,600 BPPampas: Arroyo Seco 2, Laguna ChicaHunter-gatherers already show the strongest allele sharing with some present-dayIndigenous peoples of the Southern Cone.Middle HoloceneSouth-central ChileThe Mapuche lineage separates from the lineages of the Far South. Ancestors present incentral Chile and Chiloe by at least 5,000 years ago.5,100 BPLos Rieles, second individualA second, much later genome from the same coastal site.about 1,000 to 500 BPContact with the AndesPotato, quinoa and maize arrive, a handful of Quechua and Aymara words enter Mapudungun.A subtle genetic signal only.700 BPConchali, Santiago basinTwo genomes from about AD 1100 and AD 1350, the closest ancient match to every Mapuchegroup tested.AD 1541 onwardSpanish conquestSantiago is founded. European admixture in Mapuche groups dates mostly to the 18thcentury.
Main dates discussed in this article. The Monte Verde date is archaeological; all others come from dated ancient genomes or from published genetic models. BP: years before present.

The Conchali clue

The key study is The genetic history of the Southern Andes from present-day Mapuche ancestry, published in Current Biology in 2023 by Epifania Arango-Isaza, Chiara Barbieri and colleagues from Europe and Chile. They genotyped 64 people from three Mapuche groups: Pehuenche from the Andes, Lafkenche from the coast, and Huilliche from Chiloe. Then they compared them with published ancient genomes from across South America.

Their closest ancient match was not an Andean farmer and not a Patagonian hunter. It was a pair of individuals buried at Conchali, in the Santiago basin, around AD 1100 and AD 1350, one to four centuries before the Inca reached central Chile. Both were published in the same 2018 Cell study as Los Rieles. In tests that compare ancient groups two at a time, all three Mapuche groups leaned toward Conchali. Tests of shared drift pointed the same way: to central Chile, through Conchali and the second Los Rieles individual, and to the Pampas, with a weaker signal from Arroyo Seco 2.

From these relationships, the authors reconstructed the following sequence. After the first settlement of South America, three large regional lineages formed. The southern one split again, and one branch settled central Chile and Chiloe. The Mapuche lineage separated from the lineages of the Far South during the Middle Holocene, and according to the University of Zurich, the direct ancestors of the Mapuche were living in central Chile and on Chiloe at least 5,000 years ago.

An earlier preprint by Lucas Vicuna, Susana Eyheramendy and colleagues, on Huilliche from Huapi Island in Lake Ranco, pointed the same way with a different sample. It modelled about 97% of their Native ancestry as related to Conchali, with about 3% related to the Kaweskar of the southern archipelagos, and found no significant sharing with the Inca, Tiwanaku or Amazonian groups tested.

Why Conchali matters. Two genomes are a thin basis. But they come from the right place and the right time: the northern part of the territory where Mapudungun was spoken at Spanish contact, before the Inca conquest. If the Mapuche were a recent arrival from the Andes or from the east, Conchali would not be their closest relative. It is.

Four thousand years on their own, then the Andes

According to the team, the Mapuche lineage then lived in relative isolation for about four millennia. In the centuries before contact, the genomes point to a small population of fairly stable size. Contact with the Andes came late, and it was mostly cultural.

The evidence is in the fields and in the language. Potato, quinoa, beans, squash and maize, all domesticated further north, reached south-central Chile. Mapudungun is classified as a language isolate, but it contains a handful of borrowings from Quechua and Aymara, including words for hundred and thousand. These loanwords are still phonologically very close to their sources, which led the authors to conclude that the contact did not predate the Inca period by long, if at all.

The genome shows the same contact, but faintly. The study found a subtle but robust signal of shared segments between Mapuche and Central Andean groups, in fragments short enough to point to more than about 500 years ago. Statistics that test for excess Andean ancestry in the Mapuche gene pool as a whole did not detect it. In other words, ideas, crops and words travelled south. People travelled too, but not many.

The Huilliche, Chiloe and the sea nomads

The southern Mapuche have a second story. The Huilliche of Chiloe share genome segments with the Kaweskar and Yamana, the canoe peoples of the southern archipelagos, which the authors date indicatively to 500 to 1,000 years ago. Their best population graph needed an extra contribution of about 10% into the Chiloe group. The ancient Kaweskar and Yamana genomes used in these comparisons, about 1,000 years old, were published in 2018 by Constanza de la Fuente and colleagues, who found continuity between them and the Kaweskar and Yamana of today.

A 2025 preprint by Roberta Davidson and colleagues, on 20 ancient individuals from the Chonos archipelago, just south of Chiloe, adds the other side of the picture. The Chono were closest to the ancient Kaweskar, and the northern Chono individuals, those nearest to Chiloe, shared more ancestry with modern Huilliche from Chiloe than with Pehuenche or Lafkenche. Chiloe appears to have been a meeting point between farming Mapudungun speakers and the sea nomads of the fjords.

The exchanges also ran the other way. The 2020 study of South Patagonia by Nakatsuka and colleagues found that late Kaweskar and Yamana carried 45 to 65% of an ancestry related to Conchali. Ancestry related to central Chile did not stay in central Chile: it also reached the Far South.

Our test: what Global25 can and cannot see

Native South Americans sit in a very small corner of Global25. The ancient Southern Cone and Andean groups we used lie only 14 to 47 units apart (distances multiplied by 1,000), while the two individuals from the same Conchali cemetery are already 27 units apart. So we did not ask Global25 to rank single ancient sources, which it cannot do reliably here. We asked a simpler question that cancels much of the noise.

For each of 156 published ancient genomes from Chile, Argentina, Peru and Bolivia with coverage of at least 40%, we fitted two targets: the Mapuche-Huilliche reference of the Moriopoulos 2026 collection (10 individuals), and two Andean controls, Quechua from Peru and Aymara from Bolivia. Each fit used the ancient genome plus a Spanish source, to absorb European admixture. We then took the difference: a positive value means the ancient genome fits the Mapuche better than it fits the Andean controls.

Which ancient genomes lean toward the Mapuche, and which toward the AndesAverage difference in fit (Global25 units), Andean controls minus Mapuche. Bars: plus or minus 2 standard errors-4-2+2+4+60closer to the Mapuchecloser to Quechua and AymaraPatagonia and Tierra del Fuego21 genomes, 95% lean Mapuche+4.5Pampas and central Argentine plains34 genomes, 91% lean Mapuche+2.9Central Chile (Los Rieles, Conchali)4 genomes, 75% lean Mapuche+2.1Northwest Argentina10 genomes, 40% lean Mapuche-1.5Central Andes (Peru, Bolivia)86 genomes, 27% lean Mapuche-2.2Open circles: placebo, the same test with Lake Titicaca Quechua in place of the Mapuche
Average difference in fit (Andean controls minus Mapuche) for ancient genomes grouped by region. Positive values: the genomes fit the Mapuche better than Quechua and Aymara. Bars show plus or minus two standard errors. Open circles show the same test run with Lake Titicaca Quechua in place of the Mapuche: they all fall within 0.5 units of zero.

The result is clear. Genomes from Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego lean toward the Mapuche in 20 of 21 cases, the Pampas in 31 of 34, central Chile in 3 of 4. The exception in central Chile is the 10,900 year old Los Rieles individual, from the early lineage that was later replaced; the 5,100 year old Los Rieles individual and both Conchali genomes lean toward the Mapuche. Genomes from the Central Andes go the other way, with 63 of 86 closer to the Quechua and Aymara. Northwest Argentina, a region that was under Andean influence for centuries, sits in between, leaning slightly toward the Andes, and the single genome from northern Chile, Pica Ocho (700 BP), also leans Andean. The placebo, in which a third Andean group replaces the Mapuche, returns values close to zero for every region.

Within the Mapuche side, Global25 cannot tell us whether central Chile or the Far South is closer: the four central Chilean genomes give a wide error bar that overlaps the other two. The published studies, with far more markers, put Conchali first. Our test confirms the broader picture: the Mapuche belong to the Southern Cone, not to the Andes.

How much Andean ancestry?

We then modelled the Mapuche and the Andean controls with five sources: Spanish, central Chile (Conchali), the Central Andes (Inca period Cuzco), the Far South (Kaweskar) and central Argentina (Mar Chiquita, 700 BP).

Five sources: the Andean share separates, the southern shares overlapGlobal25 NNLS, sum-to-one. Condition number 134. Sources are averages of ancient or modern groupsSpanishCentral Chile (Conchali)Central Andes (Cuzco)Far South (Kaweskar)Central Argentina (Mar Chiquita)Mapuche-Huilliche referencefit 8.426%16%38%18%Quechua, Perufit 9.453%9%34%Quechua, Lake Titicacafit 9.015%58%27%Aymara, Boliviafit 11.510%50%40%Selk'nam, 500 BPfit 13.942%15%43%Yamana, 1000 BPfit 14.653%16%30%Spike-in floor for the Andean share: a true 0% returns up to 8%, a true 10% returns 0 to 21%.
Five-source Global25 NNLS models. The Central Andean source takes 50 to 58% in Quechua and Aymara, 0% in the Selk'nam and Yamana, and 16% in the Mapuche. The split between the three southern sources is not reliable, as explained below.

The Andean component behaves as expected in every control. It takes half or more of the Quechua and Aymara gene pools and nothing in the Selk'nam or Yamana. In the Mapuche, it takes 15.7%. Dropping each of the other sources in turn raises it to between 17.1 and 23.1%.

To see how far that number can be trusted, we built synthetic Mapuche-like targets from Conchali with known amounts of Cuzco ancestry, added the noise expected for an average of ten genomes, and ran the same model 200 times. In 95% of runs, a true 0% came back at no more than 8.4%, a true 10% between 0 and 21%, and a true 20% between 8 and 28%. These tests assume perfect sources, so the real uncertainty is larger. The Mapuche value sits just above the detection floor: Global25 sees a modest Andean-like signal but cannot measure it precisely, and it cannot tell recent Andean admixture from older ancestry shared across the region. That is compatible with the published picture of a subtle trace rather than a large mixture.

European ancestry depends on the sample

The same model gives the European share of the Mapuche reference: 2.3% with five sources, 2.7 to 2.9% with two. That number is precise. In spike-in tests, a true 0% returned no more than 0.2%, and a true 3% returned 2.8 to 3.2%. But it describes this reference, not the Mapuche as a whole.

How much European ancestry? It depends on which Mapuche you sampleEuropean share, our Global25 model against published ADMIXTURE averages (K = 8)0%10%20%30%40%50%Our Mapuche-Huilliche reference (G25)2 to 3%Lafkenche (Arango-Isaza 2023)9.2%Pehuenche (Arango-Isaza 2023)13.3%Huilliche of Chiloe (Arango-Isaza 2023)43.4%
European ancestry in our Global25 reference, against the averages published by Arango-Isaza et al. (2023) for three Mapuche groups.

The 2023 study found an average of 9.2% European ancestry in the Lafkenche, 13.3% in the Pehuenche and 43.4% in the Huilliche of Chiloe, with most of the mixture dated to around the middle of the 18th century. The Global25 reference has very little European ancestry, and the one individual with more was placed in a separate group in the collection. That makes it useful for modelling Native ancestry, but it does not represent Mapuche communities today.

Two traps in the data

Trap 1: the southern sources overlap

Look again at the five-source model. The Yamana of the Beagle Channel, the southernmost people of the Americas, come out as 53% "central Chile" and only 16% "Far South". The Selk'nam come out as 42% central Chile. Read at face value, this looks absurd.

It is less absurd than it looks. Nakatsuka and colleagues found that late Kaweskar and Yamana carry 45 to 65% Conchali-related ancestry, and our 53% falls inside that range. But the consequence is that our "Far South" source, the Kaweskar, itself carries roughly half Conchali-related ancestry. The three southern sources are built from overlapping ancestry, and Global25 cannot separate them. The 26% central Chile, 38% Far South and 18% central Argentina in the Mapuche are a single southern block, split arbitrarily. That is why the headline has to come from the published studies.

Trap 2: averages that fit everything

In a first run, the best single source for the Mapuche was not Conchali but the average of 22 individuals buried at Machu Picchu. It was also the best source for the Quechua and for the Aymara. The Machu Picchu group were retainers brought from across the Inca empire, and their average sits near the centre of South American variation. An average of 22 diverse genomes is smoother than an average of two, so it fits almost any South American target. We removed it, used Inca period Cuzco instead, and relied on single genomes and differences between targets wherever possible.

What this means

The Mapuche are not a branch of the Andean civilisations that moved south, nor a late wave from the pampas. Their ancestors were part of a southern lineage that had settled central Chile and Chiloe by at least 5,000 years ago, and that remained largely separate from the Andes for thousands of years. Crops, a few words and some people came from the north in the last millennium, before or during the Inca expansion. Exchanges with the sea nomads shaped the southern Huilliche. European ancestry arrived late, and in very different amounts depending on the community.

The gap in the record is obvious. None of the studies discussed here includes a pre-Hispanic genome from the Araucania itself, the heartland between the Biobio and the Tolten. Until such genomes are analysed, Conchali remains the best stand-in, and the first Mapuche ancestors are known through their descendants and their northern neighbours.

Key points

  • The closest ancient relatives of all Mapuche groups tested are two people buried at Conchali, in the Santiago basin, about 700 years ago.
  • Direct Mapuche ancestors were in central Chile and Chiloe at least 5,000 years ago, after a lineage split from the Far South during the Middle Holocene.
  • Contact with the Andes was late and mostly cultural: crops, a few Quechua and Aymara words, and a faint genetic signal.
  • In our Global25 test, 156 ancient genomes sort cleanly: Southern Cone genomes lean toward the Mapuche, Central Andean genomes toward Quechua and Aymara, and a placebo stays near zero.
  • Global25 gives a 16 to 23% Andean share in the Mapuche reference, just above its detection floor, and cannot split central Chilean, central Argentine and Far South ancestry.
  • European ancestry ranges from 2 to 3% in the Global25 reference to 43% in the Huilliche of Chiloe.

Global25 coordinates used in this article

The five model sources, the modern targets and the ancient groups discussed above. They can be pasted directly into the Vahaduo tool. Labels follow the original files: Chile_LosRieles_12000BP is the 10,900 year old individual discussed above.

Source_Spanish_Castilla_Y_Leon,0.107753,0.143867,0.040477,-0.002153,0.043803,0.001859,-0.001723,0.004615,0.028429,0.029218,-0.002328,0.007843,-0.012091,-0.012019,0.012260,-0.006541,-0.006780,-0.001731,-0.004525,-0.002293,0.000291,-0.000907,0.001315,-0.002571,-0.002754
Source_Chile_Conchali_700BP,0.055204,-0.316337,0.118227,0.090278,-0.118484,-0.019243,-0.294115,-0.352600,-0.010635,-0.020411,0.000487,-0.001199,0.000520,0.024084,-0.008347,0.000994,0.009909,0.000697,0.000000,0.002251,-0.001373,0.004637,-0.004437,0.001084,0.000120
Source_Peru_Cuzco_Sacsahuaman_LH,0.056001,-0.306284,0.123017,0.093347,-0.113867,-0.013610,-0.297947,-0.358970,-0.014971,-0.021358,-0.001137,-0.002428,0.003479,0.023588,-0.012161,0.002572,0.007980,-0.003573,-0.000830,-0.000200,0.001597,0.006578,-0.001405,-0.001783,-0.000431
Source_Chile_Kaweskar_1000BP,0.055204,-0.316845,0.113513,0.094800,-0.104789,-0.017012,-0.287065,-0.349486,-0.015544,-0.020775,-0.000893,-0.004720,0.002602,0.026423,-0.008550,0.004508,0.002478,-0.000697,-0.001886,0.002126,-0.003057,0.001669,-0.005670,-0.000663,-0.002814
Source_Argentina_Mar_Chiquita_700BP,0.053911,-0.319153,0.116599,0.096988,-0.116945,-0.016531,-0.295772,-0.352769,-0.008906,-0.014082,-0.002244,-0.001144,0.001216,0.024747,-0.006021,0.005376,0.005938,-0.001140,-0.001097,0.001660,0.001168,0.005542,-0.003776,-0.000548,0.002798
Mapuche_Huilliche_Chile,0.055432,-0.304354,0.115889,0.090343,-0.109036,-0.018797,-0.285350,-0.345678,-0.013253,-0.014251,-0.001575,-0.001633,0.002126,0.022377,-0.008727,0.003527,0.004511,0.001850,0.000905,0.000475,-0.001410,0.001620,-0.004388,-0.003193,-0.003616
Quechua_Peru,0.056044,-0.290248,0.115794,0.090948,-0.106569,-0.016826,-0.286277,-0.342601,-0.012943,-0.014544,-0.002575,-0.002041,-0.000453,0.021692,-0.005041,0.006206,0.006451,-0.000923,-0.000515,0.000048,-0.002365,0.004846,-0.001796,0.000195,-0.002384
Quechua_Peru_Titicaca,0.057552,-0.306627,0.120749,0.094901,-0.113906,-0.020307,-0.297024,-0.354721,-0.014317,-0.017335,-0.002284,-0.001789,0.002100,0.022536,-0.006625,0.004616,0.007937,0.000174,0.000236,-0.000281,0.001076,0.005580,-0.001956,0.000256,-0.002395
Aymara_Bolivia,0.056386,-0.308174,0.119489,0.095856,-0.114791,-0.016326,-0.298156,-0.356595,-0.012287,-0.016696,-0.005609,-0.000772,-0.001086,0.020972,-0.005982,0.004212,0.007582,0.001588,0.002630,-0.000077,-0.003561,0.005146,-0.001574,0.000918,-0.001105
Chile_LosRieles_12000BP,0.045529,-0.301612,0.121433,0.103037,-0.108020,-0.016455,-0.291648,-0.345447,-0.009408,-0.020957,0.004872,-0.006594,-0.000297,0.021882,-0.008686,0.005436,0.007823,0.000507,0.000754,0.009630,0.000125,0.001978,0.003451,0.003133,-0.000120
Chile_LosRieles_5100BP,0.045529,-0.315830,0.116153,0.097869,-0.120330,-0.017291,-0.296818,-0.349139,-0.020452,-0.017677,0.002761,0.004796,0.006392,0.017203,-0.005972,0.006364,0.002347,-0.004687,0.002640,0.001876,0.007612,0.000618,-0.011092,-0.003374,-0.002994
Chile_CaletaHuelen_1100BP,0.056342,-0.316845,0.124638,0.092701,-0.113867,-0.021893,-0.296113,-0.351332,-0.014623,-0.024693,-0.005278,-0.001499,0.002155,0.017478,-0.012215,0.009812,0.002543,0.001584,0.005657,0.007066,-0.000624,0.002535,-0.006101,0.000422,0.001197
Chile_Yamana_1000BP,0.048375,-0.312275,0.118416,0.094800,-0.117406,-0.020917,-0.287653,-0.343485,-0.012476,-0.020319,-0.001543,0.001274,0.003196,0.019749,-0.008346,0.003514,0.004824,-0.003547,0.000377,0.000188,-0.003557,0.000186,-0.004190,0.003073,0.002275
Argentina_Selknam_500BP,0.056912,-0.317692,0.116153,0.096308,-0.119509,-0.022497,-0.289063,-0.346678,-0.015851,-0.014245,-0.003275,0.001349,0.000000,0.021240,-0.006967,0.003933,0.008692,-0.000148,-0.003708,0.000479,-0.002787,0.000556,-0.005012,-0.000261,-0.001157

References

  1. Population genetics Arango-Isaza E, Capodiferro MR, Aninao MJ, Babiker H, Aeschbacher S, Achilli A, Posth C, Campbell R, Martinez FI, Heggarty P, Sadowsky S, Shimizu KK, Barbieri C (2023). The genetic history of the Southern Andes from present-day Mapuche ancestry. Current Biology 33(13): 2602. doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.05.013
  2. Ancient DNA Posth C, Nakatsuka N, Lazaridis I, Skoglund P, Mallick S, et al., Reich D (2018). Reconstructing the deep population history of Central and South America. Cell 175: 1185 to 1197. doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2018.10.027
  3. Ancient DNA Nakatsuka N, Luisi P, Motti JMB, et al., Reich D (2020). Ancient genomes in South Patagonia reveal population movements associated with technological shifts and geography. Nature Communications 11: 3868. doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-17656-w
  4. Ancient DNA de la Fuente C, Avila-Arcos MC, Galimany J, et al., Moraga M (2018). Genomic insights into the origin and diversification of late maritime hunter-gatherers from the Chilean Patagonia. PNAS 115(17): E4006 to E4012. doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1715688115
  5. Ancient DNA Salazar L, Burger R, Forst J, Barquera R, et al., Krause J, Fehren-Schmitz L (2023). Insights into the genetic histories and lifeways of Machu Picchu's occupants. Science Advances 9: eadg3377. doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adg3377
  6. Preprint Vicuna L, Mikhailova A, Norambuena T, Ilina A, Klimenkova O, Shchur V, Eyheramendy S (2021). Genomic insights into the recent population history of Mapuche Native Americans. bioRxiv. doi.org/10.1101/2021.11.25.470066
  7. Preprint Davidson R, Reyes O, Roca-Rada X, Arango-Isaza E, Kassadjikova K, Barbieri C, Llamas B, Fehren-Schmitz L (2025). Palaeogenomics reveals 1,500 years of population history of the peoples of the Chonos Archipelago, Chile. bioRxiv. doi.org/10.1101/2025.11.26.690513
  8. Press release University of Zurich (2024). The roots of the Mapuche. news.uzh.ch
  9. Data Global25 PCA coordinates by Davidski, and the Moriopoulos 2026 collection of Global25 coordinates.